adrenal gland, also called suprarenal gland, either of two small triangular endocrine glands one of which is located above each kidney. In humans each adrenal gland weighs about 5 grams (0.18 ounce) and measures about 30 mm (1.2 inches) wide, 50 mm (2 inches) long, and 10 mm (0.4 inch) thick.
Each gland consists of two parts: an inner medulla, which produces epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline), and an outer cortex, which produces steroid hormones.
The two parts differ in embryological origin, structure, and function. The adrenal glands vary in size, shape, and nerve supply in other animal species. In some vertebrates the cells of the two parts are interspersed to varying degrees.
Adrenal medulla
The adrenal medulla is embedded in the centre of the cortex of each adrenal gland. It is small, making up only about 10 percent of the total adrenal weight. The adrenal medulla is composed of chromaffin cells that are named for the granules within the cells that darken after exposure to chromium salts.
These cells migrate to the adrenal medulla from the embryonic neural crest and represent specialized neural tissue. Indeed, the adrenal medulla is an integral part of the sympathetic nervous system, a major subdivision of the autonomic nervous system (see human nervous system).
The sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla are collectively known as the sympathoadrenal system. The chromaffin granules contain the hormones of the adrenal medulla, which include dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.
When stimulated by sympathetic nerve impulses, the chromaffin granules are released from the cells and the hormones enter the circulation, a process known as exocytosis. Thus, the adrenal medulla is a neurohemal organ.
Adrenal cortex
Cells of the adrenal cortex synthesize and secrete chemical derivatives (steroids) of cholesterol. While cholesterol can be
moditication into steroid hormones takes place only in the adrenal cortex and its embryological cousins, the ovaries and the testes.
In adult humans the outer cortex comprises about 90 percent of each adrenal gland. It is composed of three structurally different concentric zones.
From the outside in, they are the zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis.
The zona glomerulosa produces aldosterone, which acts on the kidneys to conserve salt and water. The inner two zones of the adrenal cortex —the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularisfunction as a physiological unit to produce cortisol and adrenal androgens (male hormones), with dehydroepiandrosterone, a weak androgen, being the major product.
Cortisol has two primary actions: (1) stimulation of gluconeogenesis—i.e. the breakdown of protein and fat in muscle and their conversion t glucose in the liver—and anti-inflammatory actions.
Cortisol and synthetic derivatives of it, such as prednisone and dexamethasone, are known as glucocorticoids, so named because of their ability to stimulate gluconeogenesis. In severely stressed patients these compounds not only facilitate glucose production but also raise blood pressure and reduce inflammation.
Because of their anti-inflammatory properties, they are often given to patients with inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and asthma.
Glucocorticoids also reduce the function and action of the immune system, making them useful for protecting against transplant rejection and ameliorating autoimmune and allergic diseases.
Regulation of adrenal hormone secretion
The secretion of cortisol and aldosterone is regulated by different mechanisms. The secretion of cortisol is regulated by the classical hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal feedback system. The major determinant that controls the
Regulation of adrenai hormone secretion
The secretion of cortisol and aldosterone is regulated by different mechanisms. The secretion of cortisol is regulated by the classical hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal feedback system. The major determinant that controls the secretion of cortisol is corticotropin (adrenocorticotropin; ACTH).
In normal subjects there is both pulsatile and diurnal (referred to as a circadian rhythm) secretion of corticotropin, which causes pulsatile and diurnal secretion of cortisol.
Variations in the secretion of corticotropin are caused by variations in the secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone by the hypothalamus and by variations in serum cortisol concentrations.
An increase in serum cortisol concentrations inhibits the secretion of both corticotropinreleasing hormone and corticotropin. Conversely, a decrease in serum cortisol concentration results in an increase in the secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone and corticotropin.
Thereby restoring the secretion of cortisol to normal concentrations. However, if the adrenal glands are unable to respond to stimulation by corticotropin, decreased serum cortisol concentrations will persist. Severe physical or emotional stresses stimulate the secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone and corticotropin, resulting in large increases in serum cortisol concentrations.
However, under these circumstances, increased serum cortisol concentrations do not inhibit the secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone or corticotropin and thereby allow large amounts of cortisol to be secreted until the stress subsides. Corticotropin also stimulates the secretion of adrenal androgens from the adrenal cortex, but the androgens do not inhibit corticotropin secretion.
Aldosterone secretion is regulated primarily by the renin-angiotensin system. Renin is an enzyme secreted into the blood from specialized cells that encircle the arterioles (small arteries) at the entrance to the glomeruli of the kidneys (the renal capillary networks that are the filtration units of the kidney).